Living Religions 9th Edition By Fisher – Test Bank
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Chapter 3 HINDUISM
Chapter Overview
Hinduism is the oldest global religion, with the Vedas (the
religious texts) being first carried orally sometime between 8000-6000
BCE. Considerable debate persists about the earliest origins of
Hinduism. The term “Hinduism” itself is also controversial, for it is a name
given by outsiders. Hinduism encompasses a wide array of beliefs and practices,
as well as a substantial technical vocabulary, and as a result some students
may find it overwhelming. Rather than attempting to trace the history of each
strand of tradition, this chapter adopts a thematic approach to aspects of
Hinduism:
1. Philosophical
and metaphysical elements
2. Major
philosophical systems
3. Religious
foundations and theistic paths
4. The
Hindu way of life
5. Hinduism
in the modern world
Students should be alerted in advance that in coming to
understand this religion they need to become familiar with an array of terms.
Though numerous, these terms are extremely important for grasping major
concepts and practices in this diverse faith. It may help to point out that
majority of terms are in Sanskrit, an Indo-European language distantly related
to English (for example, the name of the god of fire, Agni, is cognate with the
English word “ignite”). Students could be encouraged to make vocabulary flash
cards to enhance their comprehension.
Hinduism has extreme variations, and these reflect the great age
of the faith tradition. Moreover, Hindu practices vary from extreme
asceticism to extreme sensuality; from personal devotion to abstract
philosophy; and from a sense of the oneness of the divine to the claim that
there are 330 million deities. These aspects, some scholars argue, make
it difficult to define a central tradition called Hinduism. This chapter,
therefore, focuses on the main facets of the Brahmanic tradition that is
typically referred to as “Hinduism.”
Philosophical and metaphysical origins
This section includes discussion of the subtopics: Indus Valley
civilization and the Vedas.
The Brahmanic tradition may be traced back to the Vedic age. The
history and precise dating of this period is controversial. Initially, scholars
believed the “Aryans” from the north invaded the Indus Valley and developed the
Vedas (an important base for the later development of Hinduism), but recent
scholarship has questioned that. Much of the controversy rests upon
interpretation of archeological data, and is complicated by the fact that the
script used by the Indus Valley people has not yet been deciphered. Current
research suggests that changes in Indus Valley sites were brought about by
small-scale migrations over time rather than a violent Aryan invasion.
(Students may wonder whether there is any connection between the term Aryan, as
used here and its usage in Nazi ideology. Aryan is originally a Sanskrit word.
Students who investigate visual representation of Hindu deities may also notice
swastikas; swastika too is a Sanskrit word meaning “well-being.” These terms
as used in Hinduism have nothing to do with Nazism.) The relationship of the
Vedas to the Indus Valley is also in question in modern scholarship.
While it is difficult to reach definite answers about this
controversy, we can study the Vedas to learn more about the early foundations
of Hinduism. It is important to note that the Vedas are the foundation of
upper-caste Brahmanic Hinduism, but not necessarily all forms of Hinduism.
The Vedas are a collection of sacred hymns; the names of the
different portions of the collection may be difficult for students. The Rig Veda is the
first and oldest of four collections of which the Vedas are compromised.
It praises and asks blessings from the devas or deities. The other
three collections contain hymns and sacred sounds for offerings to the devas.
Other ancient shruti texts
include the Brahmanas,
the Aranyakas,
and Upanishads.
The Upanishadsrepresent
mystical insights and focus on inward self-exploration as means of knowing
Brahman, the all-pervading reality. At the introductory level, understanding
the nature of the Vedic samhitas and the Upanishads is most important.
The Vedas were initially preserved orally, and their ritual use
depends upon proper oral recitation. According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas
were not composed by humans, but rather were heard by ancient sages or rishis, and then
compiled by Vyasa.
Students may be confused by different forms of the word
“brahman.” First, there are the Brahmanas,
a portion of the Vedas (although the terms have been transliterated without
diacriticals, the first “a” in this word is long, as in “father”). Then, there
is brahman,
the all-pervading reality (the first “a” in this form of the word is short,
like the “u” in “butter”). There is also Brahmin/Brahman (as in “Brahmanic
Hinduism”), the priestly caste.
The rishiswho
appear in the Upanishads taught
that Brahman, the all-pervading reality, could be known from within as the
subtle self or soul, atman.
The Upanishads relate
key doctrines of Hinduism, such as the concept of a cycle of death and rebirth
known as samsara,
in which the atman is
continually reborn according to the results of one’s actions, or karma. The rishis sought to
escape this cycle of death and rebirth and attain moksha, liberation
from samsara.
Major philosophical systems
This section includes discussion of the subtopics: Samkhya;
Advaita Vedanta; and Yoga.
The various philosophical systems of the Brahmanic Hindu
tradition share three features in common:
·
All have deep roots in the Vedas and other scriptures but also
in direct personal experiences of truth through meditation;
·
All hold ethics to be central to orderly social and attribute
suffering to karma (that can be corrected through more ethical behavior);
·
All hold that the ultimate cause of suffering is people’s
ignorance of the Self, which is omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent, perfect,
and eternal.
Important philosophical systems include the dualistic views of
Samkhya (which holds that there is an eternally wise, pure changeless self
known as Purusha, and Prakriti,
the cause of the material universe); the monistic position of Advaita Vedanta
(which holds that atman and Brahman are one and
that the power of maya makes
the material world seem real); and a variety of forms of yoga. Raja yoga, the path
of mental concentration, incorporates practices known as sadhanas, and was
described in the Yoga
Sutras (sutras are
terse sayings or aphorisms). Jnana
yoga is the path of rational inquiry. Karma yoga is
the path of right action. Bhakti
yoga is the path of devotion to a personal deity.
Yoga encompasses many forms of spiritual discipline, all of
which seek self-knowledge. Yogic practice may include regulation of breathing
to increase prana (“breath”;
life energy), various physical postures (asanas),
the use of sacred formulas or mantras,
and/or concentration on a visual form that may include a yantra (cosmically
symbolic linear image) or the OM symbol.
Some forms of yoga focus on controlling the flow of energy through the chakras (pronounced
“chuckrah”) or subtle energy centers along the spine. Practitioners of yoga
seek samadhi,
union with the Absolute. Various forms of yoga are geared towards different
personality types, from the active to the rational to the emotional.
Most common is bhakti
yoga. Throughout the history of Hinduism, many bhaktas or devotees
have composed verses expressing their love and longing for the divine.
Religious foundations and theistic paths
This section includes discussion of the subtopics: Shaktas; Shaivites;
Vaishnavites; and the epics and Puranas.
In ancient times, rituals involving fire sacrifice and
recitation of the Vedas were apparently dominant. The bhakti or
devotional approach, however, gradually came to dominate around 600 CE. It was
open to both women and shudras (manual
laborers and artisans), who had been excluded from direct participation in
Vedic ritual. There are three major groupings of people: Vaishnavites, who
worship Vishnu (and deities associated with him), Shaivites, who worship Shiva
(and deities associated with him), and Shaktas, who worship a Mother Goddess.
While many people have a chosen deity, they may also worship other deities for
various reasons. Many Hindus speak of an ultimate, genderless form of the deity
who encompasses all the functions—creation, preservation, and destruction—of
the specific deities. It is important to point out to students that the three
major groupings do not constitute hard boundaries; people may worship a variety
of gods and goddesses for various purposes at different points in their lives.
Shaktas
The Shakta tradition may or may not include the Vedic path. The
power of the goddess is known as shakti.
This feminine power may manifest in many forms, from village goddesses
associated with a particular locale to the great goddesses of upper class
mythology. Important goddesses include Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, and Saraswati. The
goddess may be fierce or gentle. Her worship may be linked to nature,
especially trees and rivers. Texts called Tantras provide instructions for
worshipping the feminine divine. Shakti is
a key concept for the gods as well, for each has a female consort known as
his shakti.
Shaivites
The god Shiva may be represented in a variety of forms, as the
lord of yoga, as husband of the goddess Parvati, and to some Shaivites as the
attributeless supreme deity. Shiva and his shakti may be portrayed together as
an androgynous figure, and may also be represented by a lingam within
a yoni.
Shiva’s son Ganesh (created by Parvati) may be familiar to some students—he has
an elephant head and his favor is sought at the beginning of any new venture.
Vaishnavites
The god Vishnu has been worshipped since Vedic times; he is
understood to have appeared in a series of earthly incarnations, some in animal
form. Two of his most well-known incarnations are the gods Rama and Krishna
(though Krishna may be revered without reference to Vishnu). Krishna devotion
is especially popular; the devotee may imagine himself in a close personal
relationship to him, as friend, brother, mother, or beloved. Also important is
Vishnu’s consort Lakshmi,
associated with prosperity.
The epics and Puranas
Arising after 500 CE, the epics and Puranas illustrate the trend
towards personal love for a deity. The two major epics are the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata.
The epics illustrate aspects of the theory of yugas or ages, according to which the
cosmos passes through a series of four ages, with dharma or moral
order gradually declining in each era. Vishnu therefore incarnates himself (as
an avatar)
to ameliorate the situation. The world is understood currently to be in the
fourth and most degenerate age, the Kali
Yuga.
The Ramayana,
compiled sometime between 400 BCE and 200 CE, depicts the duties (i.e. dharma)
involved in various kinds of relationships through its telling of the story of
the prince Rama, his wife Shita, and a wider cast of characters. The story
exists both in a Sanskrit version and multiple vernacular oral and written
traditions.
The vast Mahabharata,
composed perhaps sometime between 4000 BCE and 400 CE, includes one of the
best-known texts of Hinduism, the Bhagavad-Gita,
which relates a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna at the beginning of a
battle between two sides of a family.
The Puranas (traditionally
18 in number), which were probably compiled between 500 and 1500 CE, detail the
vast mythology of the Hindu pantheon. Especially popular is the BhagavataPurana, which
tells the tale of Krishna as a mischievous child and his playful activities
with the gopis or
cowherd girls.
The Hindu way of life
Hinduism has no single founder, devotional tradition, or
philosophy which defines it. However, everyday life is richly imbued with
meaningful aspects of spirituality. Aspects of Hindu spirituality
considered here include: rituals; castes and social duties; life stages; home
puja; homage to the guru; fasting; prayer; auspicious designs; reverence paid
to trees and rivers; pilgrimages; and religious festivals.
Rituals
Ritual is central to Hinduism. Public ritual is known as puja. Important aspects
of puja include darsan (pronounced
“darshan”; visual contact with the divine; seeing and being seen by the divine)
and prasad (food
sanctified by being offered to a deity and/or guru and then eaten by devotees).
Vedic rituals involve a havan,
or sacred fireplace. In addition to public puja, home puja is practiced with a home shrine
or a prayer room for worship. Women often are responsible for daily home puja, though in orthodox
homes they do not perform puja (or
enter the kitchen) while menstruating.
Bodies are cremated after death, and the remains are typically
submerged in a holy river.
Castes, duties, and life goals
Life in India continues to be shaped to a considerable extent by
hierarchies and inequalities derived from Jati (thousands of groups denoted by
shared geographical origin, language, food practices, customs and beliefs,
etc.) and Varna (the traditional four-fold division of labor that ultimately
became hereditary).
The Varna caste system goes back to the Vedic age. The Vedas
described four [male] occupational groups: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and
Shudras. The Untouchables lay
outside the system. Over time, caste membership became hereditary. The Code of
Manu outlines rules for social life. Mahatma Gandhi fought against the social
injustices of the caste system, particularly discrimination against
untouchables, whom he christened harijans or
“children of God.”
Hinduism holds four major goals that define a good life: dharma, or carrying out
one’s responsibilities to uphold social and cosmic order; artha, or success in
worldly activities, including the pursuit of wealth; kama, or love and
sensual pleasure, as well as aesthetic expression; and moksha, liberation
from samsara.
Life stages
In the past, spiritual training was usually available only to
upper-caste males, but not women and Shudras. Traditionally, Brahmin males
passed through four stages: student, householder, meditation/study,
renunciation (becoming a sannyasin).
Most contemporary males do not actually follow this path. Sannyasins often
renounce the world at a relatively young age, and some join a monastic order
and live in a retreat community known as an ashram.
The guru
A guru is a revered spiritual teacher, and may serve as a sort
of spiritual parent.
Women’s Duties
Compared to other religions, women are highly venerated as
spiritual ideals in Hinduism. Women contribute to earthly life with dharma, marital wealth,
and sensual pleasure and are seen as a critical part of spiritual life such as
ceremonial sacrifice.
Marriage is ideally husband and wife as spiritual
partners. Women traditionally participate in spiritual practices only
with their husbands, not as individuals. While in early Vedic times women
enjoyed relative freedom to participate equally in spiritual rituals, social
changes in the nineteenth century reduced many women to servants to their
families. In many cases, and even today, women were considered economic burdens
unless they could provide a wealthy dowry. Nevertheless, many women in India
today are well-educated and able to attain positions of power.
Fasts, prayers, and auspicious designs
Many Hindus observe days of fasting and prayer determined by a
complex lunar or solar calendar. Astrology is very important to many Hindus
(e.g. in determining time for a marriage). Many women daily decorate the
entrance to their homes with auspicious designs.
Reverence of trees and rivers
Rivers and particular species of trees are revered throughout
India; many rivers are particularly associated with incidents in mythology.
Environmental pollution is a serious issue in contemporary India; ritual
practices themselves such as the immersion of the ashes of the dead in rivers,
and the immersion of images of deities after festivals, may contribute to the
problem. Dams, construction, and waste dumping are also threats to sacred
rivers.
Pilgrimages
There are pilgrimage sites throughout India, some associated
with particular gods or goddesses, others associated with a revered saint or
teacher.
Festivals
There is some sort of religious festival somewhere in India
virtually every day. Many festivals commemorate key events in the lives of
particular gods and goddesses.
Hinduism in the modern world
This section includes discussion of subtopics: modern movements;
Global Hinduism; and Hindu identity.
The development of Hinduism has been influenced by contact with
Buddhism, Jainism, and later Islam and Christianity. The British and Christian
missionaries criticized some Hindu practices.
Modern movements
Various spiritual leaders revitalized Hinduism in the nineteenth
century. Mahatma Gandhi encouraged grassroots nationalism in the first half of
the twentieth century. Ramakrishna (1836-1886) worshipped the divine through
many Hindu paths that led to pure devotion and universal spiritual
wisdom. His follower Vivekananda,carried the message of Hinduism
(especially the Ramakrishna Movement and the Vedanta Society) into the world
beyond India. He taught detachment from material things for spiritual
understanding. Reform movements such as the BrahmoSamaj and AryaSamaj
highlighted particular aspects of Hinduism and rejected others.
In recent years, traditional Hinduism is currently being
challenged by social reform movements on issues of gender, caste, and
poverty. Feminist groups are also challenging traditional ideas about
marriage and women’s roles.
Global Hinduism
Immigration and conversion have spread Hinduism far beyond the
borders of the Indian subcontinent. Movements such as Transcendental Meditation
and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (“Hare Krishnas”) have
brought attention to Hinduism in the West. Contemporary gurus are also enjoying
great global popularity.
Hindu identity
Some groups link Hinduism with Indian nationalism. The
RashtriyaSvayamsevakSangh, or RSS, seeks to restore India to the idealized past
when Ram (i.e. Rama of the Ramayana,
discussed earlier) ruled. Based on the ideology of Hindutva, or “Hinduness,”
RSS ideology views Muslims and Christians as alien to India.
In contrast, India’s constitution enshrines secularism. Some
groups, however, (who are sometimes termed “Hindu fundamentalists”) argue that
secularism is a cover for corruption and pandering to minorities.
This controversy is illustrated through the ongoing controversy
over the town of Ayodhya in northern India, the birthplace of Rama in Hindu
mythology. A Muslim mosque believed by some to be on the precise birthplace of
Rama was destroyed in 1992. Extremist Hindu groups have also opposed
Christianity in India. There are also periodic conflicts between Hindu and
Muslim groups in India.
Many Hindus argue that Hinduism is tolerant of all paths to the
divine, a view reiterated by the Indian Supreme Court. According to the court
to be Hindu means:
1. Acceptance
and reverence for the Vedas as the foundation of Hindu philosophy;
2. A
spirit of tolerance, and willingness to understand and appreciate others’
points of view, recognizing that truth has many sides;
3. Acceptance
of the belief that vast cosmic periods of creation, maintenance, and
dissolution continuously recur;
4. Acceptance
of belief in reincarnation;
5. Recognition
that paths to salvation and truth are many;
6. Recognition
that there may be numerous gods and goddesses to worship, without necessarily
believing in worship through idols;
7. Unlike
other religions, absence of belief in a specific set of philosophic concepts.
Key Terms
|
Asana |
Dharma |
Shakta |
|
Ashram |
Guru |
Samsara |
|
Atman |
Kali Yuga |
Sannyasin |
|
Avatar |
Karma |
Sanskrit |
|
Bhakti |
Mantra |
Secularism |
|
Brahman |
Moksha |
Sutra |
|
Brahmin |
Prana |
Tantra |
|
Caste |
Puja |
Upanishads |
|
Chakra |
Reincarnation |
Vaishnavite |
|
Darsan |
Rishi |
Vedas |
|
Deva |
Shaivite |
Yoga |
Review questions
1. What
is known about the Indus Valley civilization, the Aryans, and their
contribution to the early development of the Brahmanic traditions?
2. Describe
these major philosophical themes of Hinduism: atman, karma samsara, Moksha,
Brahman, and yoga.
3. Describe
the deities and practices associated with each of the three major groupings of
Hinduism’s theistic paths.
4. Describe
the Hindu ritual practices of puja, darshan, Prasad, and important festivals
and pilgrimages.
5. Describe
Hindu views regarding social roles and duties with respect to caste, gender,
and life stage, and note some of the challenges leaders such as Gandhi have
made to these traditional roles.
Discussion questions
1. Consider
the multiple components of the term dharma in Hinduism and how they might
complicate traditional definitions of the term “religion.”
2. Compare
and contrast the philosophical positions and practices of Samkhya, varieties of
yoga, and Advaita Vedanta.
3. How
to the epics and Puranas of Hinduism represent the Supreme?
4. Compare
the secular and fundamentalist understandings of Hinduism. Are you aware of
similar dynamics in other religions?
Class Assignments/Activities
1. Ask
students what they know about yoga; some are likely to have taken some sort of
yoga class focusing on postures and stretching. Ask them to consider how yoga
as practiced in the West may differ from the yoga described here.
2. Ask
students to do an Internet search using terms such as “Indus Valley
Civilization” and evaluate at least two websites. Ask what they are able to
learn about the different views concerning the earliest history of Hinduism.
3. Ask
students to search the Internet for images of Hindu gods and goddesses, and try
to learn as much as possible about what the different details of the images
represent. Alternatively, if a local museum has an exhibit of Indian art that
includes Hindu pieces, ask them to visit.
4. Ask
students to investigate environmental movements based on Hindu ideals
(possibilities include the ChipkoAndolan, Save the Ganges movement).
Recommended Films and Other Materials
The website www.harappa.com is a useful source of images from
Indus Valley/Harappan civilization excavations.
“Hinduism:
Elephant God,” Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
distributor, 1996. 15 minutes. A film illustrating celebration of a Ganesh
festival in Bombay.
“Puja:
Expressions of Hindu Devotion,” Smithsonian Institution, 1996. 20
minutes. Illustrates puja in temples and homes in India and the United States;
includes interviews with Hindu Americans. The related website http://www.asia.si.edu/pujaonline/puja/lesson_contents.html may
also be useful.
Additional
Class Discussion/Essay Questions
1. Why
is Hinduism such a difficult term to define? Use examples from the text to
illustrate the diversity of Hinduism.
2. Explain
the meaning of the chapter’s subtitle, “With mind absorbed and heart melted in
love.” Use selections from the text to illustrate the explanation.
3. What
views of women are engendered by Hinduism? Explain.
4. Explain
why there are so many different kinds of religious responses within Hinduism.
5. Why
is it difficult to reconstruct a historical chronology of the development of
Hinduism?
6. Discuss
the caste system and its affect on modern Indian society. How has it changed
since the Vedic age?
Chapter 3: Hinduism
In this test bank for Living
Religions, Ninth Edition, there is a new system for
identifying the difficulty of the questions. Questions are now tagged according
to the four levels of learning that help organize the text. Think of these four
levels as moving from lower-level to higher-level cognitive reasoning. The four
levels are:
REMEMBER: a question involving recall of key terms or factual
material
UNDERSTAND: a question testing comprehension of more complex
ideas
APPLY: a question applying anthropological knowledge to some new
situation
ANALYZE: a question requiring identifying elements of an
argument and their interrelationship
Types of Questions
Easy to Difficult Level of Difficulty
|
|
Multiple Choice |
Fill in the Blank/Short
Answer |
True/False |
Essay |
Total Questions |
|
Remember |
1 |
10 |
8 |
|
19 |
|
Understand |
6 |
|
3 |
|
9 |
|
Apply |
|
|
|
1 |
1 |
|
Analyze |
|
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
|
|
7 |
10 |
12 |
3 |
32 |
Fill in the Blank/ Short Answer
1. The
Hindu word for religion, which also refers to duty, natural law, social
welfare, ethics, health, wealth, power, and so on, is __________.
(REMEMBER; answer: dharma; page 71)
2. According
to Indian tradition, the Vedas were first heard and carried orally around
__________.
(REMEMBER; answer: 8000-6000 BCE; page 74)
3. Spiritual
disciplines designed to clear the mind and support a state of serene, detached
awareness are called __________.
(REMEMBER; answer: yoga; page 79)
4. The
power of the feminine aspect of the divine is known as __________.
(REMEMBER; answer: Shakti; page 84)
5. Hindu
sacred texts that instruct worshippers how to honor the feminine divine are
called __________.
(REMEMBER; answer: tantras; page 85)
6. The
three major aspects of the deity in Hinduism are called __________, __________,
and __________.
(REMEMBER; answer: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva; page 87)
7. The
two great Hindu epics are called __________ and __________.
(REMEMBER; answer: the Ramayana and the Mahabharata; page 90)
8. The
ancient compendium of mythological narratives on the origins of the cosmos,
life, deities, humanity; stories of legendary heroes; and actions of the deity
are called __________.
(REMEMBER; answer: the Puranas; page: 94)
9. The
jolliest of all Hindu festivals, characterized by the throwing of colored
powder, and celebrated at the advent of spring is called __________.
(REMEMBER; answer: Holi; page 110)
10. The
nineteenth century spiritual leader who recognized the Divine Mother in
everything, including a cat, was named __________.
(REMEMBER; answer: Ramakrishna; page 112)
Multiple Choice
11. The
oldest of the known Vedic scriptures is the __________.
12. Shakta
13. Kali
14. Rig
Veda
15. Great
Veda
(UNDERSTAND; answer: c; page 75)
12. The
Hindu god of fire is called __________.
13. Ishtar
14. Agni
15. Kali
16. Ushas
(REMEMBER; answer: b; page 76)
13. The
karma-run wheel of birth, death, and rebirth is called __________.
14. Brahma
15. Atman
16. Vishnu
17. Samsara
(UNDERSTAND; answer: d; page 77)
14. Brahmin
priests who are trained in Vedic practices and in the proper recitation of
Sanskrit texts are called __________.
15. Pujaris
16. Darshan
17. Prasad
18. Devi
(UNDERSTAND; answer: a; page 95)
15. The
complex system of hierarchies and inequalities that constitutes life in India
is referred to by the English word __________.
16. caste
17. patriarchy
18. class
19. status
(UNDERSTAND; answer: a; page 98)
16. What
is the name for a Hindu spiritual teacher?
17. Ashram
18. Soma
19. Rishis
20. Guru
(UNDERSTAND; answer: d; page 103)
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