Introduction to Clinical Psychology 8th Edition By Geoffrey P. Kramer- -Test Bank

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CHAPTER THREE

Basic Features of Clinical Assessment

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. What core competencies in assessment should clinical psychologists possess?

2. What are the steps involved in a psychological assessment?

3. What are the most common data-collection techniques?

4. What are the general goals of assessment?

5. How do clinical psychologists make diagnoses?

6. What is the basic structure of the DSM-IV-R?

7. What are some criticisms of the DSM and alternate proposals for clinical diagnosis?

8. What has research revealed about clinical psychologists’ abilities to predict future violence?

9. What are clinical judgment and clinical intuition, and how can they be improved?

10. How are computers used in psychological assessment?

11. Why are reliability, validity, and bandwidth important considerations in selecting

· assessment instruments?

12. How does a clinician’s theoretical orientation influence assessment?

13. How does the clinical context or setting affect assessment data collection and

· reporting?

14. What are the basic requirements for a good psychological report?

15. How might clients’ cultural or ethnic backgrounds affect the results of assessments?

16. 16. What should clinicians do when assessments raise ethical concerns or dilemmas?

CHAPTER OUTLINE

AN OUTLINE OF THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS

Receiving and Clarifying the Referral Question

Planning Data Collection Procedures

Collecting Assessment Data

Processing Data and Forming Conclusions

THE GOALS OF CLINICAL ASSESSMENT

Diagnostic Classification

Description

Treatment Planning and Treatment Assessment

CLINICAL JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING

Clinical Intuition

Improving Clinical Judgment

PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS

Reliability

Validity

Standardization

Bandwidth-Fidelity Issues

OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING ASSESSMENT CHOICES

Clinicians’ Experience and Theoretical Orientation

Humanistically Oriented Assessment

The Assessment Context

Cultural Factors

Core Competencies in Clinical Psychology Assessment

COMMUNICATING ASSESSMENT RESULTS

Report Clarity

Relevance to Goals

Usefulness of Reports

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN ASSESSMENT

IDENTIFICATION / KEY TERMS

· assessment (p. 49)

· referral source (p. 50)

· referral question (p. 50)

· interviews (p. 52)

· behavioral observations (p. 52)

· psychological tests (p. 52)

· case history data (p. 52)

· interpretation (p. 53)

· assessment reports (p. 53)

· diagnostic classification (p. 54)

· Historic DSM’s (p. 54)

· multiaxial diagnosis (p. 54)

· DSM-5 (p. 56)

· dimensional approaches (p. 57)

· Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual (p. 58)

· positive psychology assessments (p. 58)

· descriptive assessment (p. 58)

· treatment-related assessment (p. 59)

· prognosis (p. 61)

dangerousness (p. 62)

predictive power (p. 62)

· clinical intuition (p. 64)

· availability heuristic (p. 64)

· illusory correlations (p . 64)

confirmation bias (p. 64)

statistical prediction (p. 65)

clinical prediction (p. 65)

psychometric properties (p. 67)

· reliability (p. 68)

internal consistency (p. 68)

interrater reliability (p. 68)

· content validity (p. 68)

· predictive validity (p. 68)

· concurrent validity (p. 68)

· criterion validity (p. 68)

· construct validity (p. 68)

· standardization (p. 69)

· bandwidth-fidelity issues (p. 69)

· humanistically oriented assessment (p. 71)

· multicultural assessment (p. 72)

· core competencies (p. 72)

· report clarity (p. 73)

· ethical considerations (p. 76)

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS / CLASS ACTIVITIES

AN OUTLINE OF THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS

1. Imagine that Jessie, as presented on page 72, had been referred for assessment by individuals in addition to his school counselor, such as his physician, his boss, his parents, or a caseworker from social services. How would the assessment questions vary in relation to these different referral sources?

2. Discuss instances of “elaborate inference” that are commonly made. Think of times when the news media, popular press and even friends have “jumped to conclusions.” Why do clinicians need to be particularly cognizant of this possibility?

THE GOALS OF CLINICAL ASSESSMENT

3. Obtain a copy of DSM-I or DSM-II. Discuss some of the differences between the current version and these older manuals. Can you find differences in cultural and moral inferences in the different editions?

d. Proponents of positive psychology believe that assessments are not complete if psychological skills and strengths are not addressed. Discuss this proposal and the implications for changes in the assessment processes outlined in the chapter.

CLINICAL JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING

5. Investigate and discuss occurrences of illusory correlations, and confirmation biases in the popular press today. Some examples might be various diet programs, the assumption that sugar causes hyperactivity, or even that dietary cholesterol is the main contributor to blood cholesterol levels. How do these breakdowns in critical thinking affect individuals and/or society?

6. The book discusses that often clinicians are uncomfortable with statistical means of developing diagnoses and interventions. How do you think clients might react to such means of interpretations of their personal difficulties?

OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING ASSESSMENT CHOICES

7. Examine the manuals that accompany several psychological tests. Do they present adequate information about reliability and validity of the measures? What types of reliability do they discuss? How do they detail the processes for determining the tests validity? Where is this material presented in the manual? How often do you think this material is considered when testing choices are being made?

h. How does the orientation of the psychologist affect the types of measurement instruments chosen? Is there an argument for relying on less standardized instruments (such as many projective tests) based on a specific orientation?

COMMUNICATING ASSESSMENT RESULTS

9. An effective report attempts to strike a balance between underreporting and over-elaborating on the assessment results. If one must err in one direction or the other, which direction do you think a clinician should go? Why?

10. At times, clinicians might prepare different written reports for the referral agency than they do for the client. What might the justification be for this? Do you think this is a good practice?

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN ASSESSMENT

11. What sources of social or cultural bias might be present in the assessment situation? Along with the more acknowledged ethnic-group concerns, should socioeconomic status (SES), age, gender, homeless status, etc. also be taken into consideration? Why or why not?

12. Invite a psychologist who does assessments regularly to discuss how he or she maintains competency in the ever-widening array of assessment instruments available.

WEB EXERCISES

1. Explore the APA Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers at www. apa.org/science/ttrr. How likely is it that most individuals being assessed will actually explore this material? Whose responsibility is it to convey this information to individuals being assessed?

2. Read the APA Report of the Task Force on Test User Qualiﬁcations at: http://www.apa.org/science/html. Do these guidelines adequately address the issues of computerized assessment? Why or why not?

3. Do you think it should be possible for psychologists’ raw test data to be subpoenaed by the court? Review the APA Strategies for Private Practitioners Coping With Subpoenas Compelling Testimony for Client Records or Test Data at http://www.apa.org/governance/reports/ as you consider this situation.

4. Visit www.authentichappiness.com and explore (and even complete one of) the measures of strengths and positive attributes available there. Do you think an assessment of strengths should be included in more traditional assessment protocols? Why or why not?

5. Visit www.harcourtassessment.com and view the lists of psychological tests available. Can you identify any trends that may be shaping the field?

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

· Video: McKay, M. (Undated). Cognitive behavioral assessment. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.

· 45 minutes.

· Video: No Author (2001). Discovering psychology. United States: WGBH Boston in association with the American Psychological Association. No. 16: Testing and Intelligence. Approx. 60 minutes.

· Paniagua, F. A. (1998). Assessing and treating culturally diverse clients: A practical guide

o (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

· Pollak, J., Levy, S., & Breitholtz, T. (1999). Screening for medical and neurodevelopmental

· disorders for the professional counselor. Journal of Counseling and Development, 77,

· 350-355.

· Stuart-Hamilton, I. (2007). Dictionary of psychological testing, assessment and treatment.

· London: Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

TEST BANK

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Assessment is

a. the administering of tests of intelligence and personality.

b. only performed by qualified clinical psychologists.

c. is the collection and synthesis of information to reach a judgment.

d. all of the above

· Answer: c Page: 49

2. Which of the following best describes the unique characteristics of the types of assessment in which clinical psychologists engage?

a. Since it is the dominant activity for clinical psychologists, they are considered the experts in this field.

b. It tends to be more formal and more systematic than assessments performed by nonprofessionals.

c. It always involves the use of standardized tests and projective measures.

d. Since it relies heavily on clinical judgment, it is often neither valid nor helpful.

o Answer: b Page: 49

3. Which of the following is usually the first step in the assessment process?

a. Meeting with the client and establishing a working relationship.

b. Deciding on which instruments are going to be used.

c. Clarifying the referral question.

d. Determining who will pay for the service.

· Answer: c Page: 50

4. Which of the following is NOT usually considered one of the main sources of assessment data?

a. interviews and case history data

b. behavioral observations

c. employer interviews

d. psychological tests

· Answer: c Page: 52

5. In order to distinguish between behaviors a client cannot engage in from those a client does not engage in, a clinician would

a. use the most reliable instrument available.

b. use the most valid instrument available.

c. attempt to cross-validate their findings by using multiple instruments.

d. create his or her own measure to evaluate the client.

· Answer: c Page: 51

6. The DSM-I and the DSM-II were important innovations because

a. they provided clear rules to guide diagnostic decisions.

b. they provided terminology for describing abnormal behavior.

c. they were very compatible with the existing ICD system.

d. they enabled clinicians to predict the course of mental disorders and develop accurate prognoses.

· Answer: b Page: 54

7. DSMIV-TR represented a major improvement on earlier versions of the DSM in that

a. it utilizes a multiaxial approach to diagnosis.

b. it was developed based on field trials that examined issues related to reliability and concordance with the ICD-10.

c. it demonstrates consistently high interrater reliability for almost all diagnoses.

d. all of the above.

· Answer: b Page: 54

8. Which of the following was NOT a criticism of the DSMIV-TR?

a. It excludes many conditions, such as those that could be considered relational disorders.

b. It has done little to encourage an understanding of the antecedents and consequences of many behavioral problems.

c. It sought to make diagnoses more reliable by relying on field trial information and observable symptoms.

d. It does not account for client subjective analyses of difficulties.

· Answer: c Page: 54

9. Which of the following is a significant difference between DMIV-TR and DSM-5?

a. Neurological and neurobiological disorders are listed first.

b. Disorders with similar features are listed adjacently to each other.

c. Multiaxial categorization of disorders is no longer included.

d. all of the answers are correct

· Answer: d Page: 57

10. According to the text, which groups have expressed ongoing issues with the DSM-5?

a. positive psychologists, humanistic psychologists, and psychodynamic psychologists

b. positive psychologists and experimental psychologists

c. psychiatrists, humanistic psychologists, and social workers

d. trick question, almost every group in mental health is pleased with the DSM-5

· Answer: a Pages: 57-58

11. While many clinicians believe that developing more descriptive assessments would be of benefit in both research and clinical settings, this is unlikely to happen because

a. the benefit of an efficient shorthand for communicating about disorders outweighs all other considerations.

b. it would never be reliable and valid.

c. they are time consuming and therefore expensive.

d. the different theoretical approaches will probably never be able to agree on the descriptions.

· Answer: c Page: 59

12. Which of the following statements accurately reflect the role of assessment in treatment planning?

a. Since diagnoses based on thorough assessments tend to be very distinct, it has been possible to define specific treatments for those diagnoses.

b. Psychodiagnostic assessment fits very neatly into the medical model.

c. Assessment cannot only assist in the development of a treatment plan, but can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment as well.

d. In real, every day practice, assessment has little relationship to treatment planning.

· Answer: c Page: 59

13. The main reason that it is so difficult to predict dangerousness is that

a. no relevant, valid measures exist to measure this behavior.

b. most clinicians refuse to work with clients who have been assaultive in the past, so little data is available to use in making such predictions.

c. dangerousness is often comorbid with drug and alcohol abuse, which renders our instruments much less reliable.

d. the base rate for such behaviors is very low for most groups of people.

· Answer: d Page: 62

14. Which of the following is an example of a true negative outcome?

a. Mary’s pregnancy test came back negative, but she is actually pregnant.

b. Joe’s car was clocked speeding by a radar gun while he was going faster than the posted speed limit.

c. Anna failed an exam because she hadn’t learned the information it covered.

d. Tony’s strep test came back negative, but he didn’t recover without antibiotic treatment.

· Answer: c Page: 62

o. Research indicates that clinical intuition is

o. a result of highly developed specialized memory capacities.

p. based on excellent information-processing abilities.

q. often based on the same cognitive habits and biases common to all humans.

r. more accurate when based on larger amounts of information.

· Answer: c Page: 64

16. Research that utilizes data and findings from many previous studies, and attempts to increase the power of the conclusions, is being done on assessment outcomes. These studies are called

a. empirical validations.

b. actuarial predictions.

c. meta-analyses.

d. criterion analyses.

· Answer: c Pages: 65-66

17. Which of the following is NOT likely to improve the likelihood that a clinician’s reasoning will be more explicit than implicit?

a. changing graduate training programs to emphasize the use of statistical models

b. discussing the common inference errors in core graduate courses

c. require that all clinicians carry out research on their assessment tools

d. continuing education on the appropriate use of formal models of decision-making

· Answer: c Page: 67

18. When a measure exhibits consistency, both internally or between administrators, we say that that measure

a. is valid.

b. has good bandwidth.

c. is reliable.

d. is useful.

· Answer: c Page: 68

19. When statistical analyses indicate that a measure measures the construct it is supposed to measure, we say that it

a. is valid.

b. has good bandwidth.

c. is reliable.

d. is useful.

· Answer: a Page: 68

20. The breadth of an assessment device is referred to as its ____________; the depth of an assessment device is called its ________________.

a. fidelity; bandwidth

b. bandwidth; fidelity

c. reliability; criterion validity.

d. construct validity; test-retest reliability.

· Answer: b Page: 69

21. Which of the following clinicians would be likely to consider traditional assessment procedures dehumanizing and harmful to the quality of the client-clinician relationship?

a. Harold, a clinician trained by Carl Rogers.

b. Jamil, a psychodynamically oriented therapist.

c. Harriette, a clinician who utilizes Beck’s theories and protocols.

d. none of the above

· Answer: a Page: 71

22. In regards to core competencies in clinical assessment, the book’s authors point out that

a. since there are so many types of assessments, clinicians need to constantly strive to master as many as possible.

b. every clinical psychologist should have a set of such competencies, including the ability to evaluate psychometric properties of measures.

c. being able to construct one’s own measures is an essential skill to have.

d. since so many new measures are being developed, it makes sense to take a “wait and see” approach until consensus is reached as to which measures are worth mastering.

Answer: b Page: 72

23. The most important aspect to an assessment report is that

a. it be as thorough and complete as possible, regardless of how long it becomes.

b. it contain very detailed data and scores so others can understand all bases for the conclusions and recommendations.

c. it conveys an adequate amount of information in language that is accessible and relevant to the consumers of the report.

d. it conveys clearly the theoretical orientation of the clinician, especially in the conclusions and recommendations.

· Answer: c Page: 74

24. Which of the following contribute to lack of clarity in assessment reports?

a. excessive length

b. over reliance on technical information and statistics

c. excessive brevity

d. all of the above

· Answer: d Page: 74

25. Ethical considerations in assessment should be

a. anticipated and understood prior to undertaking any assessment.

b. anticipated only when assessments are being used in divorce or child custody proceedings.

c. discussed with colleagues only after problems become apparent.

d. handled by licensing boards so individual clinicians don’t have to worry about them.

· Answer: a Page: 76

TRUE/FALSE

26. All areas of assessment’s popularity have declined about equally since the early days of clinical psychology.

· Answer: False Page 49

27. In order to maintain the standards of the testing situations, clinicians must be careful to not explain the procedures being used to the client.

· Answer: False Page: 49

28. In planning an assessment, clinicians would typically seek more information in the categories that are most relevant to the assessment goals.

· Answer: True Page: 50

29. The DSM-III and DSM-III-R implemented a multiaxial approach to diagnosing mental disorders.

· Answer: True Page: 54

30. The DSM-5 will continue using a multiaxial approach to diagnosing mental disorders.

· Answer: False Page: 56

31. Clinicians tend to underpredict dangerousness.

· Answer: False Page: 62

32. Even when using an informal approach to processing assessment data, clinicians are significantly better at making judgments and diagnoses than nonclinicians.

· Answer: False Page: 62

33. Structured assessment materials must be validated on the population for which they are being used or the data collected might not be interpretable.

· Answer: True Page: 69

34. An assessment device cannot be any more valid that it is reliable.

Answer: True Page: 69

35. It is the clinician’s responsibility to assure that assessment goals are not socially or culturally biased.

· Answer: True Page: 76

ESSAY

36. Explain the reasons why the referral question can be considered central to a thorough assessment. (Page: 49)

37. Discuss why accurate psychodiagnosis is important. (Page: 54)

38. The DSM-5, like the DSMIV-TR before it, requires either-or categorizations according to specific criteria. Discuss the concerns expressed in the book about this approach to understanding psychopathology. (Page: 56)

39. Discuss the ways in which descriptive assessment can be seen as more important that diagnostic descriptions. (Page: 58)

40. What conclusions have been reached about the efficacy of statistical or actuarial predictions as they relate to clinical prediction? (Page: 65)

CHAPTER FOUR

Interviewing and Observation in

Clinical Psychology

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. What are the various types of interviews?

2. Which factors should clinicians consider when interviewing persons from diverse cultural

or ethnic backgrounds?

3. How does the rate of health care utilization by minorities differ from that of the majority?

4. What are examples of nondirective interviewing techniques?

5. What are structured and semistructured interview formats, and what are examples of

each?

6. What are advantages and disadvantages of structured interviews?

7. How can clinicians help clients to relax during initial stages of an interview?

8. What is frame setting, and what is its purpose?

9. What factors inﬂuence the reliability and validity of interviews?

10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of observational assessment?

11. What are the two main kinds of observational assessment?

12. What are virtual reality assessment and behavioral avoidance tests?

What factors inﬂuence the reliability and validity of observational assessment?

What trends have affected the clinical use of observational assessment?

CHAPTER OUTLINE

CLINICAL INTERVIEW SITUATIONS

Intake Interviews

Problem-Referral Interviews

Orientation Interviews

Debriefing and Termination Interviews

Crisis Interviews

Ethnic and Cultural Issues in the Clinical Interview

Cultural Sensitivity and Cultural Competence

INTERVIEW STRUCTURE

Nondirective Interviews

Semistructured Interviews

Structured Interviews

Advantages and Disadvantages of Structured Interviews

STAGES IN THE INTERVIEW

Stage 1: Beginning the Interview

Stage 2: The Middle of the Interview

Stage 3: Closing the Interview

RESEARCH ON THE INTERVIEW

Communication and Miscommunication in the Interview

Reliability and Validity of Interview Data

Error and Bias in the Interview

OBSERVATIONAL ASSESSMENT: GOALS AND BENEFITS

Goals of Observational Assessment

Limitations of Observational Assessment

OBSERVATIONAL ASSESSMENT: APPROACHES

Naturalistic Observation

Controlled Observation

RESEARCH ON OBSERVATIONAL ASSESSMENT

Defining Observational Targets

Representativeness of Observed Behavior

Reliability of Observational Assessment

Validity of Observational Assessment

IDENTIFICATION / KEY TERMS

2. interview (p. 82)

3. intake interview (p. 83)

4. mental status examination (p. 83)

5. orientation interviews (p. 84)

6. termination interviews (p. 84)

7. debriefings (p. 84)

8. crisis interviews (p. 85)

9. underutilization of services (p. 85)

10. cultural sensitivity (p. 86)

11. cultural competence (p. 86)

12. nondirective interviews (p. 88)

13. semistructured interviews (p. 88)

14. structured interviews (p. 89)

15. decision trees (p. 89)

16. client variance (p. 89)

17. information variance (p. 89)

18. criterion variance (p. 89)

19. protocol bound (p. 90)

20. setting characteristics (p. 92)

21. establishing rapport (p. 92)

22. frame setting (p. 92)

23. open-ended questions (p. 93)

24. active listening (p. 93)

25. paraphrasing (p. 94)

26. reflection (p. 94)

27. doctor-patient interview schema (p. 94)

28. nonverbal communication (p. 95)

29. scanning and focusing (p. 96)

30. personal biases (p. 98)

31. reliability (p. 98)

32. validity (p. 99)

33. malingering (p. 99)

34. gold standard (p. 99)

35. impression management (p. 99)

convergent validity (p. 99)

36. discriminant validity (p. 99)

observational assessments (p. 101)

37. self-report accuracy (p . 101)

38. person-situation interactions (p. 101)

39. ecological validity (p. 101)

40. ethnography (p. 103)

self-observation (p. 104)

41. naturalistic observation (p. 104)

42. life records (p. 104)

43. controlled observation (p. 105)

44. contrived observations (p. 105)

45. role-playing (p. 105)

staged naturalistic event (p. 106)

46. virtual reality assessment (p. 107)

47. behavioral avoidance test (p. 107)

demand characteristics (p. 109)

48. task complexity (p. 109)

49. interrater reliability (p. 109)

50. observer effects (p. 109)

51. observer training (p. 109)

52. concurrent validity (p. 110)

53. predictive validity (p. 110)

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS / CLASS ACTIVITIES

CLINICAL INTERVIEW SITUATIONS

3. Have students discuss the types of interviews they have experienced, either job-related, or when they accessed services of some kind. What were the characteristics of interviews that left them with positive feelings? Which interviews were particularly difficult?

4. Have students practice a short “intake” interview with one another. They might have the task of finding out why their classmates chose to take this particular course. Explore the challenges of getting information while establishing and maintaining rapport.

5. What crisis services are available on your campus? If possible, have one of the counselors come to class and discuss approaches and protocols that are used.

INTERVIEW STRUCTURE

6. Stage some practice interviews in class. Give some students a “secret” and have other students attempt to find out this information. If possible, have some groups use structured interviews (give them an outline to follow) and others freer rein. Which ones are more successful in finding out the hidden information? Which ones did the students prefer?

g. Have students inquire about the types of interviews utilized in various settings, such as the campus counseling center or local community mental health center. Discuss where these interviews fall on the continuum of structure: from nondirective to completely structured. How do the types of interviews used relate to the various agencies’ goals and missions?

STAGES IN THE INTERVIEW

· Conduct an “interviewing workshop” with the students. Have them work on basic rapport skills, active listening, minimal encouragers, etc. See the “Additional Resources” section for suggested books and videos for setting this up. Which skills are most difficult? Which come most easily?

· Explore how nonverbal information can affect verbal communication by having students make the same statements using different tones of voice and holding their bodies in different ways. Which is more powerful? Do we get more information from verbal statements or nonverbal cues?

10. Most clinicians schedule “50 minute hours.” How helpful are strict time limits in structuring the closing of the interview? Can an argument be made for more flexible time arrangements?

RESEARCH ON THE INTERVIEW

2. Explore interrater reliability by conducting a short interview with a student or assistant and having them rate it on several dimensions. (Alternatively, a short video clip could be used.) How much variance is there in the students’ interpretations? How could reliability be improved?

b. Have students explore some of their personal biases that might be relevant to the gathering of interview material. Discussing how they view older individuals, individuals, of the opposite (or same) gender, individuals with multiple tattoos and piercings, musicians or actors, overweight or obese individuals, very thin or very muscular individuals, and so on can be used to explore how biases can extend beyond the more often discussed racial and cultural issues.

OBSERVATIONAL ASSESSMENT: GOALS AND BENEFITS

13. Have students create a short self-report measure for some observable behaviors such as media use, exercise or studying. Have them take the measure themselves and also give it to an adolescent. They can then actually measure the behavior and explore how accurate the self-reports were. Do their observations raise questions about the widespread use of self-reports measures with adolescents?

13. Have students discuss times when they notice differences in their own behaviors. Do they behave the same ways in the classroom, at their jobs, with their family of origin, with their friends in social settings, before coffee, or after a few drinks? Does this information support the use of observational assessment or not?

OBSERVATIONAL ASSESSMENT: APPROACHES

14. Have half of the class carry out a discussion on a current event that is relevant to them, while the rest of the class watches. Have all the students fill out questionnaires about the exercise. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of unobtrusive observations as compared to participant observations in light of the responses.

15. Have students choose a behavior to monitor for several days and discuss whether they would consider such an activity worthwhile for clients seeking help. Why or why not?

16. Have students role play solving a disagreement while others observe. What data is obtained through observing the role playing? In what contexts might such information be particularly helpful?

RESEARCH ON OBSERVATIONAL ASSESSMENT

17. Have students describe behaviors such as “laughter” or “arguing” in ways that would facilitate coding of those behaviors. Discuss the relationship between task complexity and interrater reliability in light of their descriptions.

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