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Chapter Three
Commitment and Consistency
Teaching Commitment and Consistency:
As with reciprocity, consistency is valued in society. Consistency is associated with personal and intellectual
strength—rationality, stability, honesty. Inconsistency, on the other hand, is considered an undesirable personality
trait.
Sherman (1980) called residents of Bloomington, Indiana and asked what they would say if they were asked to
spend three hours collecting money for the American Cancer Society. Many said yes.
Then, when a representative of the American Cancer Society called a few days later, those previously called by
Sherman volunteered at 7 times the rate of people not previously called.
Telemarketers often begin by asking “How are you this evening?” When you say “Fine,” they respond, “I’m glad
to hear that, because I’m calling to ask you to make a donation to help out the unfortunate victims of…”
Daniel Howard (1990) tested this in a study. A telemarketer began with either “How are you feeling this
evening?” (& waiting for response) or “I hope you are feeling well this evening.” 33% complied with question.
15% complied with statement.
Another common tactic is to begin with a small request and then move on to a larger one. This happened to me
recently when I received a renewal letter from a civic organization. I normally give them $35 a year. The renewal
card had choices of $35, $50, $100, $200, and I was surprised to find that instead of $35 being the circled option,
$50 was circled. When I read the letter, I noticed that the dues had not changed – still $35 a year. But the
organization anticipated (correctly in many cases) that their members might be willing to give a little more, since
they’ve already committed to giving in the past.
Another organization that I won’t name, actually had the audacity to not even list my current donation level on the
response card! After debating whether to give at all, I wrote in my usual amount in the “other” line.
The tactic of starting with a small request and moving to a larger request is called the “foot-in-the-door”.
Freedman and Fraser (1966). Researcher, posing as a volunteer worker, went door-to-door in a residential
California neighborhood. He asked homeowners if they would allow a large public-service billboard to be put up
on their lawns. He showed them a picture of an attractive house with a very large, unattractive sign reading
DRIVE CAREFULLY obscuring the view.
What response rate do you think he got? 17%
However, another group of homeowners, given the same request complied at 76%! What inspired these latter
homeowners to agree at such a remarkable rate? Well, two weeks before, a different volunteer worker requested
that they display a small three inch square sign that read BE A SAFE DRIVER. Most said yes. But then two
weeks later, they again complied at an astounding rate.
Their second experiment started with a request that homeowners sign a petition that favored “keeping California
beautiful”. Of course nearly everyone signed. Who wouldn’t want to keep their state beautiful? But then two
weeks later, nearly half agreed to put up the DRIVE CAREFULLY billboard even though the original request was
on a completely different subject!
Why? Signing the petition changed how people viewed themselves.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL AND TEST BANK
Foot-in-the-Door
“What may occur is a change in the person’s
feelings about getting involved or taking
action. Once he has agreed to a request, his
attitude may change, he may become in his
own eyes, the kind of person who does this
sort of thing, who agrees to requests made by
strangers, who takes action on things he
believes in, who cooperates with good
causes.”
– Freedman and Fraser (1966)
Foot-in-the-Door
• Start with a small request, then move on
to a related larger request
• Small commitments manipulate a
person’s self-image
• Once the self-image has been changed,
people will naturally comply with large
requests that are consistent with the new
self-image
Commitments that change the self-image
should be:
• Active
• Public
• Effortful
• Freely-chosen
Here’s a vivid example of how effective a foot-in-the-door can be. The other day, I was having lunch with some
colleagues. One colleague was talking about a friend from college. He noticed that the friend had a burn of some
sort on his arm. When asked, the friend explained it was a brand from his fraternity. And it wasn’t the only
brand…
The colleague turned to me and asked if social psychology had any theories as to why someone would let people
brand him, not once but multiple times.
As it turned out, we were talking about that very thing in class this week. So, why would someone allow himself
to be branded?
Well, would he have allowed himself to be branded when he first pledged? Probably not. Instead, people are
asked to make a series of increasingly large commitments.
So, how do you think this branded fraternity brother feels about his frat? He loves it! As the research suggests, if
someone goes through a severe initiation to join an organization (such as getting branded for a fraternity), he or
she will become a loyal, happy member.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 5E
Some effects of public commitments:
• Circumventing “cooling off” laws
• Increasing the likelihood of hung juries
• Helping people lose weight and quit
smoking
Commitments needn’t be this large to create compliance. Just having someone write something down is often
enough. Many car dealerships in states with “cooling off” laws use a simple technique to prevent customers from
backing out of contracts. They have the customer fill out the contract.
Commitment can also create resistance. Kerr and MacCoun (1985) showed that hung juries were significantly
more frequent when voting took place through a show of hands rather than by secret ballot.
Weight reduction. Quitting smoking.
By making public commitments to lose weight or quit smoking, you are harnessing the power of the
Commitment/Consistency principle in your favor. It’s much more difficult to go back on a public commitment to
others than on a private commitment to yourself. You don’t want everyone around you to think you’re inconsistent
do you?! Going back to the previous example of the student who likes his fraternity more than ever after his
branding can lend some valuable insight into increasing the effectiveness of a weight loss or smoking cessation
program as well. Just as a harsh initiation can lead to increased liking for a group, a more difficult weight loss
program has been shown to be more effective in getting people to lose weight, and keep the weight off, even if the
increased difficulty is a result of tasks unrelated to weight loss itself. A more difficult program leads to a stronger
commitment to keeping the weight off, and even more positive feelings toward losing weight.
Vulnerability to trappings of commitments:
• Age
• Individualism
• Pride
• Self-consciousness
Research also shows individual differences in peoples’ preference to remain consistent with prior commitments.
One such difference is age; people who are older tend to have a greater desire to stick to their commitments
(Brown, Asher, & Cialdini, 2005). Also, people with an individualistic orientation (the tendency to value
individual achievement as opposed to instead emphasizing the needs of the group) tend to place a higher value on
their own prior commitments. Therefore, those who were raised in individualistic societies such as the U.S. or
Western Europe, as opposed to collectivistic cultures such as Japan or China, will tend to remain more consistent
with prior commitments (Petrova, Cialdini, & Sills, 2007).
Similarly, those who have a lot of personal pride or self-consciousness will tend to place more value on their prior
commitments and remain more consistent with them.
The last commitment/consistency technique we’ll discuss is the low-ball.
I got hit by a low-ball myself when I bought my first pinball machine. I had called around to find my favorite
game (Twilight Zone). I found one and was quoted a price of $1500. I then called a knowledgeable friend (with a
truck) to come look at the game with me. Once there we examined the game. It looked good. But when I got ready
to buy it, the attendant called the district manager and found out that they couldn’t sell it for $1500. They wanted
$1550. I got angry, but there I was. I had brought my friend all the way to the mall with his truck. We had checked
the game out. And now I wasn’t going to buy it for a measly $50? So I bought it.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL AND TEST BANK
The low-ball
• Begins with a good deal (often too good)
• Then, just before the sale, the deal
changes
• In the meantime, the target has generated
additional justifications
• When the original reason is removed, the
additional justifications remain
The low-ball can be used for pro-social purposes. Pallak, Cook, and Sullivan (1980) wanted to increase energy
conservation in Iowa. An interviewer contacted residents, gave them energy-saving tips, and asked them to try to
save fuel in the future. They all agreed to try, but they didn’t use any less energy than a control group who had not
been contacted.
Another group was given the same energy-saving tips and also agreed to try to save energy. But this group got
something extra: The interviewer explained that their names would be published in newspaper articles describing
them as public-spirited, fuel-conserving citizens. This public commitment led to substantial conservation over the
next month (12.2% gas savings)
But then the researchers hit them with the low-ball. The Iowans received a letter explaining that it would not be
possible to publish their names. Now that the incentive was removed, did their energy use go back up? No. They
actually saved even more energy! 15.5%.
Though the study didn’t allow us to know exactly why this happened, one explanation is that once the Iowans
were promised newspaper publicity, they began conserving energy. Then they started generating other reasons
why they were conserving energy. When the original reason was taken away, these other reasons remained.
Though perhaps not entirely ethical, the low-ball can even be used by consumers (normally the targets of such
techniques). A good friend of mine developed the following technique. He goes into a pawn shop and finds
something he wants. He asks the price but after checking his pocket, he finds that he doesn’t have quite enough
money. He gives the storeowner all the cash he has and leaves to get more. He returns later, morose, and explains
that he can’t get any more cash. Often, the owner grumbles and sells him the item for the lower price.
Interestingly, my friend can accurately predict when this will work and when it won’t. It doesn’t work if the
owner puts the money aside behind the counter. But if he puts it in his pocket, my friend’s got it made.
Defense
• Body signals
• Stomach signs
– Listen to your gut
– Tell requester exactly what they did
• “Heart of Hearts”
– Ask self if you’d make the same
commitments if you had it to do over
again, and go with first feeling
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 5E
The best ways to defend yourself against the weapon of commitment/consistency involve paying close attention to
body signs. Commitment/consistency works by trapping you in your own previous commitments, and this is often
accompanied by an uncomfortable tightening in your gut as the trap begins to spring. The key is to trust this
feeling and use it to your advantage. If you feel like you’re being taken, there’s a good chance that you are. At this
point, listen to your gut and tell the requester exactly what they’ve done. They’re sure to back off.
However, we are very good at fooling ourselves into believing what is consistent with our prior beliefs. We can
come up with endless reasons to justify even the most foolish of behaviors. Despite this, there is still a way to reevaluate
the situation: Ask yourself if, knowing what you know now, you would make the same commitments
again, and listen pay close attention to the first hint of an answer that comes into being before all the excuses and
rationalizations can take over.
Over the last week or two, we’ve discussed two weapons of influence: reciprocity and commitment/consistency.
These aren’t just abstract theories, though. They’re effective and usable techniques. So, I’d like everyone to divide
into groups and consider some of the applications of the techniques we’ve been discussing.
For the following questions, imagine that
you’re in a class in which the professor gives
essay tests. On the last test, you felt your
essays were worth an A, but when the tests
were returned, you received a B+. You
decide to talk to the professor about changing
your grade.
How could you use reciprocity to help
convince the professor to change your grade?
How could you use commitment/consistency
to help convince the professor
I’ve found that students respond well to this exercise. By violating the taboo about discussing such matters
in class, students become engaged. In addition, the solutions the students develop inevitably raise important
questions about the ethics involved in invoking the weapons of influence.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL AND TEST BANK
Testing Commitment and Consistency:
3.1 Someone is especially vulnerable to the Commitment and Consistency principle if he/she is
(a) young
(b) raised in a Western society
(c) coerced into making the initial commitment
(d) a and b only
(e) all of the above
ANSWER: B
3.2 An experiment done at a horsetrack measured bettors’ confidence that their horse would
win. Half of the bettors were approached immediately before laying down their bets and
the other half were approached immediately after. What was found?
(a) Those approached after their bets were significantly more confident than those
approached before.
(b) Those approached before their bets were significantly more confident than those
approached after.
(c) Both groups were equally confident.
(d) None of the above.
ANSWER: A
3.3 Which of the following alternatives best describes the explanation given in Influence for
our strong desire to be and look consistent?
(a) Consistency is adaptive; that is, most of the time we are better off with a consistent
approach to things.
(b) Most people in desire to remain consistent with themselves.
(c) Most people see inconsistency as an undesirable trait in others.
(d) All of the above.
(e) Only a and c.
ANSWER: D
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INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 5E
3.4 Automatic, unthinking consistency is a dangerous thing. Yet, in Influence, it was stated
that many times we find it attractive. Why?
(a) It offers one shortcut to use in deciding how to behave when we don’t have the time to
examine all the evidence.
(b) Because we have a deep-seated need for occasional danger.
(c) Because even unthinking consistency is preferable to emotional responding.
(d) None of the above.
ANSWER: A
3.5 In Influence several factors were discussed that increased the ability of a commitment to
produce changes in a person’s self-image and future action. Which of the following is not
such a factor? When the commitment is:
(a) active.
(b) effortful.
(c) public.
(d) perceived as internally motivated.
(e) none of the above; they are all such factors.
ANSWER: E
3.6 Which of the following is true regarding the foot-in-the-door technique?
(a) People are more likely to agree to a second request after denying in initial, smaller
request.
(b) People are more likely to agree to a second request after agreeing to an initial, smaller
request.
(c) People are more likely to agree to a second request after denying in initial, larger
request.
(d) People are more likely to agree to a second request after agreeing to an initial, larger
request.
ANSWER: B
3.7 Why do written commitments tend to be effective?
(a) They are active.
(b) They are difficult to deny once made.
(c) They influence others to believe that the writer truly believes what was written.
(d) All of the above.
(e) None of the above.
ANSWER: D
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL AND TEST BANK
3.8 In a study by Jones and Harris, subjects were shown an essay that was favorable to Fidel
Castro. Half were told that the essay’s author had been assigned to write the pro-Castro
essay, whereas the other half were told that the author had chosen to write the pro-Castro
essay. All subjects were then asked to estimate the true attitude of the author toward
Castro. What happened?
(a) Only when the author was seen as having chosen to write the essay was he rated as
liking Castro.
(b) Only when the author was seen as required to write the essay was he rated as liking
Castro.
(c) The author was rated as liking Castro both when he was seen as having chosen and as
having been assigned the essay.
(d) The author was only rated as liking Castro if the subject making the rating liked Castro.
ANSWER: C
3.9 In a study by Deutsch and Gerard, subjects committed themselves to some initial
judgments, privately, or not at all. Later they received information that their initial
judgements may have been mistaken. They were then given the opportunity to change
those first judgments. What happened?
(a) Both public and private commitment produced equal loyalty to the initial judgments.
(b) Both public and private commitment produced loyalty, but the public commitment
produced more.
(c) Both public and private commitment produced loyalty, but the private commitment
produced more.
(d) None of the above.
ANSWER: B
3.10 The study by Aronson and Mills in which some college women were made to go through
an embarrassing initiation ceremony in order to gain access to a discussion group:
(a) found those who had the severe initiation disliked the discussion group as a result.
(b) found those who had the severe initiation liked the discussion group more as a result.
(c) has implications for understanding the actions of such diverse groups as college
fraternities and primitive societies.
(d) only a and c.
(e) only b and c.
ANSWER: E
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 5E
3.11 Jonathan Freedman conducted a study in which students at an all-boys school were
threatened with mild or severe punishment for playing with a “forbidden toy”.
Approximately 6 weeks later, were given another opportunity to play with the “forbidden
toy.” Which of the following is true regarding the boys’ behavior?
(a) Most of those who were threatened with mild punishment tended to play with the toy
the first time, but few played with it the second time.
(b) Most of those who were threatened with mild punishment tended to play with the toy
the second time, but few played with it the first time.
(c) Most of those who were threatened with severe punishment tended to play with the toy
the first time, but few played with it the second time.
(d) Most of those who were threatened with severe punishment tended to play with the toy
the second time, but few played with it the first time.
ANSWER: D
3.12 A research project by Pallak and his associates demonstrated the effectiveness of the lowball
compliance technique often used by car dealers. In the Pallak work, Iowa homeowners
were promised newspaper publicity if they conserved energy, which led to energy savings
initially. A month later they were told that they would not get the publicity after all. What
happened?
(a) Canceling the publicity had no effect, they continued to save energy at the same rate as
they did after first being told about the publicity.
(b) Canceling the publicity caused them to revert to their old energy consumption levels.
(c) Canceling the publicity resulted in even greater energy savings.
(d) Only a and b.
(e) Only a and c.
ANSWER: E
3.13 Which of the following defenses are suggested in Influence to combat use of the weapon of
Commitment and Consistency?
(a) Always take time when performing a behavior to stop and evaluate whether behaving
consistently with prior actions is the best decision.
(b) Deliberate carefully about whether you would make the same past decisions if you
could go back in time knowing what you know now.
(c) Pay attention to your gut feelings and when you feel like you’re being trapped by your
own commitments, share that with whomever is trapping you.
(d) All of the above.
ANSWER: C
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL AND TEST BANK
3.14 Which of the following would be the best way to ensure that people do not discuss a survey
they completed until the end of the semester?
(a) “Do not discuss the survey until the end of the semester.”
(b) “Please do not discuss the survey until the end of the semester.”
(c) “Do you agree not to discuss the survey until the end of the semester?”
(d) “I ask that you please do not discuss the survey until the end of the semester.”
ANSWER: C
3.15 Which of the following statements is true about commitments?
(a) Once a person makes an initial commitment, he is more likely to agree to future
requests that are in keeping with the prior commitment.
(b) If a person makes a commitment but later finds out that the original reason for making
the commitment was not valid, the original commitment will not affect his later behavior.
(c) An initial commitment must be very large if it is going to affect later behavior.
(d) All of the above
ANSWER: A
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 5E
Chapter Four
Social Proof
Teaching Social Proof:
For social proof, I begin by showing the History Channel documentary “History’s Mysteries:
Silent Witnesses, The Kitty Genovese Murder” (part AAE-42628, orderable on
http://www.historychannel.com). It is, in my opinion, a somewhat flawed documentary, spending
relatively little time on the social psychological explanations for the inaction of the bystanders. It
does, however, offer a disturbing portrayal of a disturbing historical event.
When the videotape is finished, I assess the class’ reaction. If students are upset (which sometimes happens
after viewing the documentary) we begin discussing the documentary immediately. Otherwise, I start with
the theory and research below, maintaining flexibility when the class wishes to discuss or elaborate on
particular points.
This is, in my opinion, a somewhat flawed documentary—particularly in the almost complete exclusion of the
social psychological explanation of the incident. The producers knew about the research. They mentioned
(although mispronounced) the original researchers: Latané & Darley.
Why did 38 witnesses do nothing?
• Common explanations at the time:
– People, particularly city dwellers, are
apathetic
– People are selfish, insensitive,
unfeeling, and indifferent
• Explanations of social psychologists
– Diffusion of responsibility
– Witnesses saw others doing nothing
and inferred that they should do nothing
Many commentators emphasized that no action was taken even though 38 witnesses were present.
Two social psychologists, Bibb Latané and John Darley, suggested, instead, that no action was taken because 38
witnesses were present.
Two reasons: (a) diffusion of responsibility, (b) because we want to appear poised and cool in front of others.
When we look around, we see others failing to act or even look upset. So there must be nothing wrong.
Bystander intervention
• Darley and Latané (1968): Confederate
had an epileptic seizure.
– One bystander:
– Five bystanders:
• Latané and Darley (1968): Smoke
seeping out from under a door
– Lone participant:
– Three participants:
– One participant, two passive
confederates:
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL AND TEST BANK
For both of these studies, I write in the results as we discuss them. Darley & Latané, 1968: RA had an
epileptic seizure. 85% helped with only one bystander. 31% when 5 bystanders were present. Latané & Darley,
1968: 75% of lone individuals who see smoke seeping from under a door report it. Three person groups reported it
only 38% of the time. When a participant was in a three-person group with two passive confederates, the
participant reported the smoke only 10% of the time.
Bystander intervention
• Very high levels of helping (90-100%)
when need is clear
• In ambiguous situations, more help with
a lone bystander
• Pluralistic ignorance greatest in groups
of strangers. Worst in cities:
– loud and distracting
– multiple witnesses more likely
– other witnesses are likely to be
strangers
Research has shown high levels of helping (90-100%) when the need is clear – whether witnesses see it singly or
in groups. In ambiguous situations, there is often more help with a lone bystander. Pluralistic ignorance is greatest
in groups of strangers. Worst in cities: cities are loud and distracting, multiple witnesses are more likely, and
others are likely to be strangers. Perhaps these offer a better explanation for the bystander inaction during the
Kitty Genovese murder.
Social Proof:
We view a behavior as correct in a given
situation to the degree that we see others
performing it.
As with other influence principles, usually this works well. Usually if a lot of people are doing something, it’s the
right thing to do. I then ask the class to brainstorm about situations in which they’ve used others’ behavior
as a guide for theirs.
We often use the behavior of others as a
guide when we are unsure of what to do.
What are three situations in which you’ve
used social proof to determine the correct
behavior?
1)
2)
3)
Later today, we’ll listen to some segments of
the National Public Radio fund drive. While
listening to these segments, please write
down the uses of social proof that you hear:
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 5E
Social influence via social proof
• Laugh tracks
• Salting
• “Fastest-growing”
“Largest-selling”
“Number one”
• Overcoming fears
– Bandura, Grusec, and Menlove (1967)
– Bandura and Menlove (1968)
Laugh tracks: when a show has a laugh track people laugh longer and more often, and they rate the material as
funnier (Provine, 2000). Canned laughter is most effective for poor jokes (Nosanchuk & Lightstone, 1974).
Salting: Bartenders salt tip jars, church ushers salt collection plates.
Products are labeled “fastest-growing”, “largest-selling”, or “Number one.” It is not uncommon to, shortly after a
new Year or season begins, encounter a movie advertisement claiming the movie is “the number 1 romantic
comedy of the Year”, or “the number one thriller of the Summer.” While this initially sounds impressive, closer
inspection often reveals that the romantic comedy or thriller in question is the only new movie of that genre so far
that year or season. Of course this qualifies these movies for last place as much as it does first, but advertisers who
know the power of social proof are happy to overlook that.
Social proof helps people overcome fears. (Bandura, Grusec, & Menlove, 1967). Children who were terrified of
dogs watched a little boy playing happily with a dog for 20 minutes each day. After 4 days, 2/3 were willing to
climb into a playpen with a dog and remain confined while everyone else left the room. The effect did not
diminish a month later. A follow-up study also showed the effect when the children watched a film of a boy
playing with a dog (Bandura & Menlove, 1968). It was most effective when the film showed a variety of other
children interacting with their dogs.
When we are unsure of ourselves, when the
situation is unclear or ambiguous, when
uncertainty reigns, we are most likely to look
to and accept the actions of others as correct
(Tesser, Campbell, & Mickler, 1983).
When is social proof most common? When we are unsure…
But the people we are examining are probably examining us, so appearances can be deceiving.
Amplifiers of Social Proof
• Uncertainty
– Advice for helping
• Similarity
• Many others
• Collectivistic cultures
Advice: If you are in an emergency, point to individual people, make them aware of the emergency, make them
individually responsible for actions, and instruct them on what to do (“You in the green shirt, call 911!”).
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL AND TEST BANK
We are more likely to use another’s behavior as a model for our own behavior when the other is similar to
ourselves. Hence the frequent use of person on the street interviews in advertisements.
Also, the number of others performing a behavior has a strong effect on the influence of this behavior. This, of
course, makes sense. If everyone else is doing it, then it must be the right thing to do, and if more people are doing
it, it seems to be an even better cue.
Finally, the culture in which someone was raised can affect the strength with which the principle of social proof
can move behavior. In collectivistic cultures such as Japan or China, there is more emphasis on fitting in with the
group as opposed to an emphasis on standing apart like in individualistic cultures like the U.S. or Western Europe.
As a result, those who are raised in collectivistic cultures tend to be more easily swayed by social proof.
I then have the class listen to a 2-3 minute segment of a National Public Radio fund drive, which contains a
number of instances of social proof (telephones ringing, names of people who have pledged, etc.)
Defense
• Stay alert for faked evidence
• Stay alert for social proof via social
proof
– Social Proof snowball effect
There are two main actions to take in order to defend yourself against being misguided by the principle of social
proof, and each one just requires you to periodically take a quick peek at your surroundings.
The first is to keep an eye out for falsified evidence of social proof. If the evidence that something is funny is a
laugh track, or the evidence that something is popular is an actor playing a random person on the street, it’s time to
think more carefully and really consider the evidence at hand. Luckily, this kind of falsified evidence is fairly easy
to identify most of the time.
The other action is to keep an eye out for the possibility that the social proof you see may be the result of a snowball
effect. That is, it’s okay to use the crowd as a valuable information source if they are all doing something because
they have reason for doing it, but it’s also possible that everyone is performing a certain behavior just because
everyone else is doing it. In this case, again, you should think more carefully about the evidence you and everone
else actually has about the situation at hand.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 5E
Testing Social Proof:
4.1 Someone is likely to be more vulnerable to the social proof principle if he/she
(a) is similar to those who are providing the social proof evidence
(b) was raised in a collectivistic society
(c) is uncertain of the best course of action
(d) b and c only
(e) All of the above.
ANSWER: E
4.2 What has the research on the principle of social proof shown?
(a) It works best when the proof is provided by the actions of many other people.
(b) It isn’t strong enough to overcome deep-seated fears or phobias.
(c) It works on adults but not children.
(d) Live demonstrations of others’ behavior are necessary for the effect to work; film clips
don’t produce good results.
ANSWER: A
4.3 In the Chicago-based doomsday cult studied by Festinger, Riecken, and Schacter, what
happened after it became clear that the end of the world was not going to occur?
(a) The group disbanded after members saw each other show disappointment.
(b) The group members remained highly committed to the group.
(c) The groups ceased in trying to gain publicity.
(d) B and C only
ANSWER: B
4.4 The concept of pluralistic ignorance:
(a) defines a situation in which each person viewing a possible emergency decides that
since nobody appears concerned, nothing is wrong.
(b) helps explain the results of the bystander intervention studies done by Latane and
Darley.
(c) helps explain the tendency of Jonestown residents to wait calmly in line to take poison.
(d) all of the above.
(e) only a and c.
ANSWER: D
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL AND TEST BANK
4.5 Which of the following maximize(s) the influence of the principle of social proof?
(a) Uncertainty regarding the situation.
(b) A feeling of obligation toward the others in the situation.
(c) A feeling of similarity to the others in the situation.
(d) Only b and c.
(e) Only a and c.
ANSWER: E
4.6 Which of the following is false regarding helping in an emergency?
(a) When a bystander is surrounded by passive others, he or she is unlikely to take action.
(b) When it is clear that an emergency exists, bystanders usually help.
(c) Whether the situation is clear or unclear, help is more likely when one bystander (rather
than a group) is present.
(d) In an unclear situation, a group of strangers is less likely to produce help than a group
of friends.
ANSWER: C
4.7 Which of the following natural characteristics of urban environments are likely to lead to
decreased bystander aid?
(a) confusion.
(b) populousness.
(c) low levels of acquaintanceship.
(d) a and b only.
(e) all of the above.
ANSWER: E
4.8 Each of the following increase the chance that helping will occur in a situation EXCEPT
(a) it is clear that help is needed
(b) it is clear who is responsible for helping
(c) it is clear what needs to be done to help
(d) None of the above (all will increase the chance of helping)
ANSWER: D
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 5E
4.9 The strange statistic showing that front page suicide stories lead to increases in airplane and
automobile fatalities was argued in Influence to be best explained by which of the
following interpretations?
(a) Bereavement.
(b) Secret Imitation Suicide.
(c) Similar Social Conditions.
(d) None of the above.
ANSWER: B
4.10 Which of the following is not true of the relationship between front page suicides and
subsequent air and traffic deaths?
(a) The wider the publicity given the suicide story, the greater the increase in subsequent
deaths.
(b) The relationship holds for noncommercial air fatalities but not for commercial (i.e.,
airline) fatalities.
(c) If the story concerns a single suicide, then there is an increase only in single-person air
and traffic fatalities.
(d) If the story concerns a suicide plus murder incident, then there is an increase only in
multiple-person air and traffic deaths.
(e) The age of the single-person suicide story victim is correlated with the age of the
victims of subsequent single-person car wrecks.
ANSWER: B
4.11 Someone is more likely to follow the lead of others who are
(a) large in number
(b) performing a behavior with some dissenters present
(c) uncertain of their actions
(d) All of the above
ANSWER: A
4.12 Which of the following is false about laugh tracks?
(a) Laugh tracks have a greater effect on poor jokes than good ones.
(b) Audiences like laugh tracks.
(c) Audiences laugh more when laugh tracks are present.
(d) Audiences rate shows as funnier when they contain laugh tracks.
ANSWER: B
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL AND TEST BANK
4.13 According to Influence, fast food ads are effective in part because they
(a) change people’s attitudes toward the food
(b) allow viewers to see diverse groups of people eating fast food
(c) make the act of eating fast food seem more common
(d) All of the above
ANSWER: C
4.14 Which of the following statements is true about social proof?
(a) Using social proof usually leads us to the wrong behavior.
(b) Social proof can help to explain the inaction of the bystanders to the Kitty Genovese
murder.
(c) We often follow social evidence, even when it is clearly fake.
(d) Both b and c.
(e) All of the above.
ANSWER: D
4.15 According to Influence, to defend oneself against the inappropriate use of social proof, we
should
(a) stay vigilant for plainly counterfeit social evidence.
(b) never look to others to figure out what to do.
(c) look only to dissimilar others for evidence of correct behavior.
(d) None of the above.
ANSWER: A
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